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" In October 2018, Hurricane Walaka eroded away most of East Island, the second largest island of the French Frigate Shoals.

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" La Perouse Pinnacle, a rock outcrop in the center of the atoll, is the oldest and most remote volcanic rock in the Hawaiian chain. It stands tall and is surrounded by coral reefs. Because of its shape, the pinnacle is often mistaken for a ship from a distance.

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" Whale-Skate Island is a submerged island in the French Frigate Shoals. These islands suffered considerably from erosion starting in the 1960s, and by the late 1990s, Whale-Skate Island was completely washed over.

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" The reef system at French Frigate Shoals supports 41 species of stony corals, including several species that are not found in the main Hawaiian Island chain. More than 600 species of marine invertebrates, many of which are endemic, are found there as well.

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" More than 150 species of algae live among the reefs. Especially diverse algal communities are found immediately adjacent to La Perouse Pinnacle. This has led to speculation that an influx of additional nutrients – in the form of guano – is responsible for the diversity and productivity of algae in this environment. The reef waters support large numbers of fish. The masked angelfish (""Genicanthus personatus""), endemic to the Hawaiian Islands, is relatively common there. Most of Hawaii's green sea turtles travel to the shoals to nest. The small islets of French Frigate Shoals provide refuge to the largest surviving population of Hawaiian monk seals, the second most endangered pinniped in the world.

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" The islands are also an important seabird colony. Eighteen species of seabird, the black-footed albatross, Laysan albatross, Bonin petrel, Bulwer's petrel, wedge-tailed shearwater, Christmas shearwater, Tristram's storm-petrel, red-tailed tropicbird, masked booby, red-footed booby, brown booby, great frigatebird, spectacled tern, sooty tern, blue-gray noddy, brown noddy, black noddy and white tern nest on the islands, most of them (16) on Tern Island. Two species, the blue-gray noddy and the brown booby, nest only on La Perouse Pinnacle. The island also is the wintering ground for several species of shorebird.

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" A three-week research mission in October 2006 by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) led to the discovery of 100 species never seen in the area before, including many that are totally new to science. The French Frigate Shoals project is part of the Census of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the International Census of Marine Life.

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" This table lists the islands of the French Frigate Shoals:

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"= = = Yellow-billed shrike = = =

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" The yellow-billed shrike (""Corvinella corvina"") is a large passerine bird in the shrike family. It is sometimes known as the long-tailed shrike, but this is to be discouraged, since it invites confusion with the long-tailed shrike, ""Lanius schach"", of tropical southern Asia. The yellow-billed shrike is a common resident breeding bird in tropical Africa from Senegal eastwards to Uganda and locally in westernmost Kenya. It frequents forest and other habitats with trees.

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" The yellow-billed shrike is with a long, graduating tail and short wings. The adult has mottled brown upperparts and streaked buff underparts. It has a brown eye mask and a rufous wing patch, and the bill is yellow. Sexes are largely similar, but females have maroon patches on the flanks, while males have rufous parches; these patches are only visible when the bird is in flight, displaying, engaging in territorial disputes, or preening. Immature birds show buff fringes to the wing feathers. The legs and feet are black, and the beak is yellow, even in juveniles. It is a noisy bird, with harsh ""swee-swee"" and ""dreee-too"" calls.

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" The species is resident in tropical Africa, south of the Sahara and north of the equator, but is not present in the Horn of Africa. It is present in Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Sudan, Sudan, Togo, and Uganda. It makes localised movements, but these have been little studied.

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" This is a conspicuous and gregarious bird and a cooperative breeder, always seen in groups, often lined up on telephone wires. The nest is a cup structure in a bush or tree into which four or five eggs are laid. Only one female in a group breeds at a given time, with other members providing protection and food.

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" The yellow-billed shrike feeds on insects, which it locates from prominent look-out perches in trees, wires, or posts. They also sometimes eat small frogs, reptiles, and mice, but are not known to eat other birds or to form larders.

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" ""C. corvina"" is common in some areas and less so in others. No evidence has been found of any substantial decline in its populations, so the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being of least concern.

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"= = = Coronie District = = =

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" Coronie is a district of Suriname, situated on the coast. Coronie's capital city is Totness, with other towns including Corneliskondre, Friendship, Jenny. The district border the Atlantic Ocean to the north, the Surinamese district of Saramacca to the east, the Surinamese district of Sipaliwini to the south and the Surinamese district of Nickerie to the west. The Totness Airstrip is one of the oldest airport in Suriname, in use since 1953, when the Piper Cub (PZ-NAC) of Kappel-van Eyck named ""Colibri"" landed there from Zorg en Hoop Airport.

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" The district has a population of 3,480 and an area of 3,902 km².

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" Coronie, as with most of Suriname, relies mostly upon agriculture for both its income and its food supply. The coastal environment means that many coconut and rice plantations exist.

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" In September 1965 4 sounding rockets of Apache type with a maximum altitude of 205 km were launched.

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" Coronie is divided into 3 resorts (""ressorten""):

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"= = = Ninhydrin = = =

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" Ninhydrin (2,2-dihydroxyindane-1,3-dione) is a chemical used to detect ammonia or primary and secondary amines. When reacting with these free amines, a deep blue or purple color known as Ruhemann's purple is produced. Ninhydrin is most commonly used to detect fingerprints, as the terminal amines of lysine residues in peptides and proteins sloughed off in fingerprints react with ninhydrin. It is a white solid which is soluble in ethanol and acetone at room temperature. Ninhydrin can be considered as the hydrate of indane-1,2,3-trione.

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" Ninhydrin was discovered in 1910 by the German-English chemist Siegfried Ruhemann (1859–1943). In the same year, Ruhemann observed ninhydrin's reaction with amino acids. In 1954, Swedish investigators Oden and von Hofsten proposed that ninhydrin could be used to develop latent fingerprints.

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" Ninhydrin can also be used to monitor deprotection in solid phase peptide synthesis (Kaiser Test). The chain is linked via its C-terminus to the solid support, with the N-terminus extending off it. When that nitrogen is deprotected, a ninhydrin test yields blue. Amino-acid residues are attached with their N-terminus protected, so if the next residue has been successfully coupled onto the chain, the test gives a colorless or yellow result.

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" Ninhydrin is also used in amino acid analysis of proteins. Most of the amino acids, except proline, are hydrolyzed and react with ninhydrin. Also, certain amino acid chains are degraded. Therefore, separate analysis is required for identifying such amino acids that either react differently or do not react at all with ninhydrin. The rest of the amino acids are then quantified colorimetrically after separation by chromatography.

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" A solution suspected of containing the ammonium ion can be tested by ninhydrin by dotting it onto a solid support (such as silica gel); treatment with ninhydrin should result in a dramatic purple color if the solution contains this species. In the analysis of a chemical reaction by thin layer chromatography (TLC), the reagent can also be used (usually 0.2% solution in either n-butanol or in ethanol). It will detect, on the TLC plate, virtually all amines, carbamates and also, after vigorous heating, amides.

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" When ninhydrin reacts with amino acids, the reaction also releases CO. The carbon in this CO originates from the carboxyl carbon of the amino acid. This reaction has been used to release the carboxyl carbons of bone collagen from ancient bones for stable isotope analysis in order to help reconstruct the palaeodiet of cave bears. Release of the carboxyl carbon (via ninhydrin) from amino acids recovered from soil that has been treated with a labeled substrate demonstrates assimilation of that substrate into microbial protein. This approach was successfully used to reveal that some ammonium oxidizing bacteria, also called nitrifying bacteria use urea as a carbon source in soil.

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" A ninhydrin solution is commonly used by forensic investigators in the analysis of latent fingerprints on porous surfaces such as paper. Amino acid containing fingermarks, formed by minute sweat secretions which gather on the finger's unique ridges, are treated with the ninhydrin solution which turns the amino acid finger ridge patterns purple and therefore visible.

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" The carbon atom of a carbonyl bears a partial positive charge enhanced by neighboring electron withdrawing groups like carbonyl itself. So the central carbon of a 1,2,3-tricarbonyl compound is much more electrophilic than one in a simple ketone. Thus indane-1,2,3-trione reacts readily with nucleophiles, including water. Whereas for most carbonyl compounds, a carbonyl form is more stable than a product of water addition (hydrate), ninhydrin forms a stable hydrate of the central carbon because of the destabilizing effect of the adjacent carbonyl groups.

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" Note that to generate the ninhydrin chromophore (2-(1,3-dioxoindan-2-yl)iminoindane-1,3-dione), the amine is condensed with a molecule of ninhydrin to give a Schiff base. Thus only ammonia and primary amines can proceed past this step. At this step, there must be an alpha hydrogen present to form the Schiff base. Therefore, amines bound to tertiary carbons do not react further and thus are not detected. The reaction of ninhydrin with secondary amines gives an iminium salt, which is also coloured, and this is generally yellow–orange in color.

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"= = = Arthur Nebe = = =

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" Nebe rose through the ranks of the Berlin and Prussian police forces to become head of Nazi Germany's Criminal Police (""Kriminalpolizei""; Kripo) in 1936, which was folded into the Reich Main Security Office (RSHA) in 1939. Prior to the 1941 German invasion of the Soviet Union, Nebe volunteered to serve as commanding officer of ""Einsatzgruppe B"". The killing unit was deployed in the Army Group Centre Rear Area, in modern-day Belarus, and reported over 45,000 victims by November 1941. In late 1941, Nebe was posted back to Berlin and resumed his career within the RSHA. Nebe commanded the Kripo until he was denounced and executed after the failed attempt to kill Adolf Hitler in July 1944.

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" Following the war, Nebe's career and involvement with the 20 July plot were the subject of several apologetic accounts by the members of the plot, who portrayed him as a professional policeman and a dedicated anti-Nazi. The notions that Nebe's motivations were anything other than Nazi ideology have since been discredited by historians who describe him as an opportunist and an ""energetic"", ""enthusiastic"" and ""notorious"" mass murderer driven by racism and careerism.

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" Born in Berlin in 1894, the son of a Berlin school teacher, Nebe volunteered for military service and served with distinction during World War I. In 1920 Nebe joined the Berlin detective force, the ""Kriminalpolizei"" (Kripo; Criminal Police). He attained the rank of a police inspector in 1923 and the rank of Police Commissioner in 1924.

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" Nebe was a ""conservative nationalist"", who embraced the shift of the country ""to the right in the 1930s"". In July 1931, he joined the Nazi Party (NSDAP number 574,307) and the ""Schutzstaffel"" (SS number 280,152). Nebe became the Nazis' liaison in the Berlin criminal police, with links to an early Berlin SS group led by Kurt Daluege. In early 1932, Nebe and other Nazi detectives formed the NS (National Socialist) Civil Service Society of the Berlin Police. In 1933 he came to know Hans Bernd Gisevius, then an official in the Berlin Police Headquarters; after the war, Gisevius produced an apologetic account of Nebe's Nazi era activities. In 1935 Nebe was appointed head of Prussian Criminal Police. He later obtained the rank of SS-""Gruppenführer"", an SS equivalent to the rank of a police general.

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" In July 1936, the Prussian Criminal Police became the central criminal investigation department for Germany, the ""Reichskriminalpolizeiamt"". It was amalgamated, along with the secret state police, the ""Geheime Staatspolizei"" (Gestapo), into the ""Sicherheitspolizei"" (SiPo), with Reinhard Heydrich in overall command. Nebe was appointed head of the ""Reichskriminalpolizeiamt"", reporting to Heydrich. The addition of the Kripo to Heydrich's control helped cement the foundations of the police state. It also led to an ""overlap"" of personnel from the SD, Gestapo and Kripo to leadership positions in the police and security forces in Germany.

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" On 27 September 1939, Himmler ordered the creation of the Reich Main Security Office (""Reichssicherheitshauptamt"" or RSHA); the new organisation encompassed the intelligence service, security services, secret state and criminal police. The RSHA was divided into main departments, including the Kripo, which became Department V of the RSHA. Department V was also known as the ""Reich Criminal Police Office"" (""Reichskriminalpolizeiamt"", or RKPA). Kripo's stated mission, which Nebe embraced, was to ""exterminate criminality"". Under his leadership, equipped with arbitrary powers of arrest and detention, the Kripo acted more and more like the Gestapo, including the liberal use of so-called protective custody and large-scale roundups of ""asocials"".

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" In 1939, Nebe lent a commissioner in his Criminal Police Office, Christian Wirth of Stuttgart, to the euthanasia organisation, which ran the programme of involuntary euthanasia of the disabled. Also in 1939, as head of Kripo, he was involved in the discussions around the upcoming campaigns against the Sinti and Roma. Nebe wanted to include sending Berlin's Gypsies to the planned reservations for the Jews and others in the east. In October 1939, Nebe ordered Adolf Eichmann to put Gypsies with Jews on the transports to Nisko. In November, Nebe led the onsite investigation into Georg Elser's failed assassination attempt on Hitler.

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" Just prior to the 1941 Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa, the ""Einsatzgruppen"" mobile death squads which had operated in Poland were reformed and placed once again under the overall command of Reinhard Heydrich. Nebe volunteered to command ""Einsatzgruppe B"", which operated behind Army Group Center after the invasion of the Soviet Union. The unit's task was to exterminate Jews and other ""undesirables"", such as communists, Gypsies, ""Asiatics"", the disabled, and psychiatric hospital patients in the territories that the Wehrmacht had overrun. The ""Einsatzgruppen"" also shot hostages and prisoners of war handed over by the army for execution.

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" Around 5 July 1941, Nebe consolidated ""Einsatzgruppe B"" near Minsk, establishing a headquarters and remaining there for two months. The killing activities progressed apace. In a 13 July Operational Situation Report, Nebe stated that 1,050 Jews had been killed in Minsk, and that in Vilna, the liquidation of the Jews was underway, and that five hundred Jews were shot daily. In the same report Nebe remarked that: ""only 96 Jews were executed in Grodno and Lida during the first days. I gave orders to intensify these activities"". He also reported that the killings were being brought into smooth running order and that the shootings were carried out ""at an increasing rate"". The report also announced that in Minsk ""Einsatzgruppe"" was now killing non-Jews.

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" In the 23 July report, Nebe advanced the idea of a ""solution to the Jewish problem"" being ""impractical"" in his region of operation due to ""the overwhelming number of the Jews""; there were too many Jews to be killed by too few men. By August 1941, Nebe came to realize that his ""Einsatzgruppe""'s resources were insufficient to meet the expanded mandate of the killing operations, resulting from the inclusion of Jewish women and children since that month.